Posted September 18, 2009
Comparing climate change adaptation strategies across Europe
Despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, some degree of climate change is inevitable. A European report compares National Adaptation Strategies (NASs) across Europe. It highlights the need for countries to work together and share knowledge and provides insight for future policy.
The EU’s Climate Change Adaptation White paper1 suggests that adaptation measures need to be implemented at both national and regional levels.
This new report2 provides information on the variety, success and knowledge gaps in NASs, as well as suggestions for future developments. It reviews NASs in fourteen European countries, selected on the basis of the accessibility of information. Six themes were identified to structure the analysis:
The motivations behind establishing NASs. This includes factors, such as EU policies, experiences of extreme weather and awareness of the economic costs of inaction. NASs vary in their emphasis on different motivations. For example, water availability is prioritised in southern European countries, whereas flood risk is more important in central and northern Europe.
Science-policy interactions. Scientific information was crucial in the development of all NASs, but there were differences in how science was integrated into policy. This ranged from a specific bridging organisation in the UK, to a joint committee of scientists and politicians in Germany. There was little coordination between national and European research programmes.
Communicating adaptation. Although the need to communicate NASs was widely acknowledged, only a few countries have implemented concrete plans. Initial steps have mainly been in the form of web-based systems. Communication for adaption needs to be distinct from communication for mitigation.
Multi-level governance. In many countries, local and regional initiatives would benefit from being integrated and harmonised at a national level. In addition, few NASs address the potential role of emerging EU policy or global activity.
Integrating adaptation into sectoral polices. This is a key challenge for NASs. Currently most NASs focus on awareness and vision, which indicates that implementation programmes will be needed in the future. Most countries involve, or plan to involve stakeholders, in different phases.
Monitoring and enforcement. Few NASs consider the later stages of the policy cycle, i.e. evaluation.
From the analysis of these six themes, the report provides some tentative strengths and weaknesses of NASs. Three countries appear to have made the greatest progress. Finland was the first to adopt a NAS and initiate a targeted research programme, the UK helped spearhead activities in Europe to assess vulnerability and the Netherlands has integrated adaptation policy related to water safety into spatial planning.
There are also some common weaknesses. For example, a high degree of regional autonomy, such as in the UK and Spain, makes it difficult to assign cross-sectoral responsibilities. It is important for countries to learn from each other’s experiences. The EU can play a key role in knowledge transfer as well as developing transnational research collaboration.
1. See: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52009DC0147:EN:NOT
2. Partnership for European Environmental Research Report No.1. Download from: http://peer-initiative.org/media/m256_PEER_Report1.pdf
Source: PEER Report No 1. Helsinki: Partnership for European Environmental Research. (2009). Europe Adapts to Climate Change: Comparing National Adaptation Strategies.
Contact: rob.swart@wur.nl
Theme(s): Climate change and energy, Sustainable development and policy assessment
Effects of reducing particulate emissions from vehicles
Vehicles are an important source of particulate matter (PM) pollutants. A new study cautions that reductions in PM exhaust emissions will not necessarily be matched an equal reduction in the toxic effects of emissions on health and the environment. This is important when designing regulations to limit the ecotoxicity of exhaust PM.
Incomplete combustion of fuels and the breakdown of lubricants result in PM in vehicle exhausts. Diesel vehicles are a particularly significant source of PM.
Partly funded by the EU1, the researchers studied the physical, chemical and toxic characteristics of PM emissions from one type of petrol Euro 4 vehicle and two types of diesel Euro 4 vehicles. One of the diesel vehicles was fitted with a diesel particle filter (type CPDF). Euro 4 vehicles comply with strict exhaust emission standards, which came into force in Europe for new light vehicles in 2005 2. Catalytic converters must be fitted to reduce emissions. All vehicles were put through a series of driving cycles that simulate different driving conditions, such as urban, open road and motorway driving. Exhaust emissions were then collected.
The study found that overall, both the PM mass and PM number emissions from the conventional diesel were higher than PM emissions from either the diesel with CPDF or the petrol vehicles. In particular, under a driving cycle with mild accelerations, the number emissions from the petrol vehicle were half of those of the diesel vehicle equipped with the CDPF. However, under more dynamic driving cycles, the petrol vehicle emitted more particle numbers than the diesel vehicle with the CDPF – 20 per cent more under urban driving scenarios and up to 870 times more under motorway driving scenarios.
All the PM samples demonstrated a toxic effect when tested on bioluminescent bacteria. This method of ecotoxitity testing has been found to be a good tool for biological monitoring of air samples. When the same mass of PM from each of the three samples was compared, the sample from the petrol vehicle appeared to be around 12 times more toxic. The diesel vehicle with the CDPF appeared to be about 9 times more toxic than the conventional diesel vehicle sample.
One reason for these results could be the chemical composition of the PM emissions: the CPDF and petrol samples contain higher relative concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and metals, both of which are toxic to the bacteria. The physical characteristics of the emissions could also play a role, although many factors need to be considered when assessing the complex link between ecotoxicity and types of chemical emissions.
The comparatively higher toxicity of PM (on a weight for weight basis) from both the petrol and CPDF means that although overall emissions levels from these two vehicle types are far lower than PM emissions from the conventional diesel, they were actually only about 40 per cent less toxic for petrol and 20 per cent less toxic for the CDPF than the conventional diesel. This implies that when new PM control technologies are to be assessed, it should not be assumed that reductions in the level of exhaust emissions produce a similar level of reductions in the impact on health and the environment. Analysis of other components of the PM emissions revealed that:
Overall metal emissions from the CDPF fitted diesel vehicle were significantly lower (about 80 per cent) compared with the conventional diesel vehicle. Metal emissions from the petrol vehicle were similar to those from the diesel vehicle with CDPF.
Ammonium, nitrate and sulfate emissions were lowest in the petrol vehicle. The CDPF moderately reduced ammonium and nitrate emissions although sulfate emissions were higher than for the conventional diesel vehicle.
The CDPF moderately reduced emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Over most of the testing cycles, PAH emissions were lower from the petrol vehicle than either diesel vehicle.
1. This research was supported by the European Commission through the European Social Fund. See: http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/esf/index_en.htm
2. See: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/transport/road.htm
Source: Vouitsis, E., Ntziachristos, L., Pistikopoulos, P. et al. (2009). An investigation on the physical, chemical and ecotoxicological characteristics of particulate matter emitted from light duty vehicles. Environmental Pollution. 157:2320-2327.
Contact: zisis@auth.gr
Theme(s): Air pollution, Environment and health, Sustainable mobility
Impact of volunteer GM maize on conventional crops is low
A recent EU-supported study has analysed the development of volunteer or ‘rogue’ GM (genetically modified) maize plants in a conventional crop field. It finds that their numbers are low and do not exceed the EU’s threshold of 0.9 per cent for incidental GM content.
Scientific data on the role of maize volunteers on cross-pollination is limited. The most detailed studies have been conducted in Spain. The EU regulation on GM food and feed1 sets a threshold of 0.9 per cent incidental GM content in non-GM feed and food products. Above this threshold the products must be labelled as containing GM organisms (GMO). Volunteer plants are not planted deliberately by farmers. In the case of GM maize they usually grow from cobs or cob fragments that are left after harvesting and are particularly common in temperate regions.
To comply with the EU regulation it is important to understand the effect of GM volunteers on the yield of an otherwise conventional field.
The research took place in Girona, Spain, where both GM and conventional maize is grown. Twelve fields were researched in which GM maize had been grown in 2004 and conventional maize in 2005. The distribution of volunteer GM plants was recorded and classified over three years. The study also monitored the growth of the volunteers and the level of flowering and cob production. The research was supported by the EU SIGMEA and Co-Extra projects2.
The density of volunteer plants ranged from residual (less than 30 per hectare) to extremely high (above 8000 per hectare and making up almost 10 per cent of total plants). The variation depended on several factors, such as climate and the preparation of the field before sowing. For example, furrows for irrigation eliminate a large number of volunteers.
The volunteer plants tended to be defective. They rarely produced cobs and those that were produced normally had no grains. Pollen dispersion appeared to be difficult because volunteers were much shorter than normal plants. When cross-fertilisation did occur it tended to be low.
On the basis of the number and fertility of the volunteer plants in the fields the study estimated the effect of the GM volunteers on the presence of GMO in the yield of a conventional maize crop grown in the field the following year. The percentage of GMO ranged from 0.016 to 0.16 per cent, depending on the field. This is well below the 0.9 per cent threshold established by EU legislation.
However, this contribution of volunteer plants to incidental GM levels should not be ignored, especially if the initial density of volunteer plants is above 1000 per hectare. This information is particularly valuable to growers who wish to know in advance the risk of incidental GMO from volunteers.
Maize volunteers are usually easily controlled by currently applied agricultural techniques and potential accidental presence may therefore be considered negligible.
1. See http://ec.europa.eu/environment/biotechnology/basic_legislation1829.htm
2. SIGMEA (Sustainable Introduction of GMOs into European Agriculture) and Co-Extra (GM and Non-GM supply chains: their CO-EXistence and TRAceability) are both supported by the European Commission under the Sixth Framework Programme. See: http://sigmea.group.shef.ac.uk/ and www.coextra.eu
Source: Palaudelmàs, M., Penas, G. Melé, E. et al. (2009). Effect of volunteers on maize gene flow. Transgenic Research. 18:583-594.
Contact: joaquima.messeguer@irta.cat
Theme(s): Agriculture, Biotechnology, Risk assessment
Using nature’s resources to store carbon
The ability of the Earth’s living systems to store carbon could play a vital role in the mitigation of climate change. A new report suggests that, in coming decades, safeguarding and restoring carbon in ecosystems has the potential to prevent well over 50 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon entering the atmosphere.
Last year the EU launched its Climate Action and Renewable Energy package1 to set a target of reducing its overall emissions to at least 20 per cent below 1990 levels by 2020. Both European and global targets could be aided by enhancing nature’s carbon capture and storage capacity, with the additional benefits of promoting biodiversity and soil fertility.
There are three priority ecosystems for carbon conservation and management – forests, peatlands and agriculture. Reducing deforestation rates by 50 per cent by 2050 and maintaining them at this level until 2100 (with deforestation stopping altogether when 50 per cent of the area remains in each country that was originally forested in 2000) would avoid the release of up to 50 Gt of carbon this century. Reducing deforestation in tropical regions would have the biggest impact. Emissions from deforestation are equivalent to about 15 per cent of the total global anthropogenic carbon emissions.
The draining of peatland for agricultural land and other land uses emits up to 0.8 Gt of carbon a year. This is particularly problematic for tropical peat-swamp forests in South-East Asia which are being drained for palm oil and pulpwood production. The carbon value of peatland far outweighs the carbon benefits of the biofuel crops. For example, the combustion of palm oil produced on drained peatland equates to a carbon ‘debt’ which could take centuries of biofuel production to repay.
Agriculture has the potential to make significant gains in carbon storage. If best management practices were adopted, it is estimated that 5.5-6 Gt of CO2 equivalent could be saved per year by 2030. About 90 per cent of this could be achieved by enhancing carbon sinks and 10 per cent from emission reductions. This could make agriculture almost carbon neutral. These management practices could include crop rotation and agroforestry which combines food production with tree planting.
The report suggests that the management of carbon storage and uptake is achievable if the right policy framework is in place. It suggests we need to change our perception of the natural world from an offset mechanism – where forests are planted to compensate for emissions – to a sector capable of real reductions in emissions. However, there is uncertainty about the amounts of carbon sequestered and the authors note that all stores, except perhaps peat, would eventually reach saturation.
The report suggests that mitigation policy should be guided by the best available science alongside a cost-benefit analysis. The IPCC has concluded that at an appropriate price for carbon (€70 per tonne of CO2), the agricultural sector could be second to the building sector in 2030 in terms of mitigating climate change. There are other potential benefits, such as improvements to biodiversity, soil fertility and local economies. However, consideration must be given to local populations to ensure that any changes in land use do not further disadvantage groups who are already poor or marginalised.
1. See: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/climate_action.htm
Source: United Nations Environment Programme report. (2009). The Natural Fix? The Role of Ecosystems in Climate Mitigation. A UNEP Rapid Response Assessment. Download from: http://www.unep.org/publications/search/pub_details_s.asp?ID=4027
Contact: monika.bertzky@unep-wcmc.org
Theme(s): Agriculture, Climate change and energy, Forests, Soil
Sustaining forest ecosystem services: lessons for REDD
A recent report has demonstrated that paying people to avoid clearing forests in developing countries can be a low-cost and effective way to tackle climate change and preserve valuable ecosystem services, providing governments are able to manage their forests effectively.
Forests provide a wide range of services: food, fuel, building materials, freshwater, climate regulation, flood control, maintenance of biodiversity, and cultural services, to name a few. The cost of providing these services often falls on local land managers. However, it may be more profitable for the land manager to convert the land for other uses, such as agriculture.
Clearing forest to use the land for other purposes contributes to around 20 per cent of global GHGs. This tends to take place in tropical regions. In recognition of the role played by forests in storing carbon, it is possible that reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries could become part of the new climate agreement to be reached in Copenhagen in December 20091.
The report focused on a number of issues for REDD activities, and reviews 13 Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) projects in Africa, Southeast Asia and Latin America. PES are designed to provide financial incentives to the land owner to preserve the forest and are thought to be an effective instrument for implementing REDD. Under PES, payments for environmental services are conditional and are only made if the service, such as conserving forest areas, is delivered.
Performance-based payments are the most promising feature of REDD schemes. However, policy and legal frameworks are needed to support compliance. In addition, monitoring, verification and reporting, as well as sanctions for non-compliance, are important REDD activities. However, the researchers suggest these are difficult to achieve in practice. Accurately measuring and monitoring forest change is a major challenge in many developing countries. The study recommends providing free or low-cost access to satellite imagery to track deforestation, technical training and establishing transparent data analysis to support local REDD activities.
Strong governance of forest resources is key to successful REDD projects. Effective and fair rules, frameworks and institutions at both local and national levels, are essential for a successful PES approach. For example, clearly identifying land rights, natural resources and protection of the rights of forest-dependent communities. The study found that governance is often weakest in areas where deforestation is highest.
Payment schemes should be monitored to ensure that poor and marginalised groups are not unfairly affected by REDD activities. To date, most PES initiatives have been small-scale and have had some positive impacts. But where REDD schemes are implemented on a large scale or governance is weak, care should be taken to ensure that such schemes do not lead to social inequality. Strong property rights are essential if local individuals and communities are to benefit from funding for REDD activities.
Costs of reducing forest emissions through PES schemes include both opportunity and transaction costs. Opportunity costs are borne by landholders who potentially could earn more money if forest land was used for alternative purposes, such as agricultural production. Opportunity costs depend on the actual scheme implemented and the anticipated level of GHG reductions to be achieved. Transaction costs cover government and private costs to set up and run the scheme.
1. See: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/future_action.htm
Source: International Institute for Environment and Development, CIFOR and World Resources Institute report. (2009). Incentives to sustain forest ecosystem services: A review and lessons for REDD. The report can be accessed at: www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/13555IIED.pdf
Contact: ivan.bond@iied.org and maryanne.grieg-gran@iied.org
Theme(s): Climate change and energy, Forests
Why is ground-level ozone not on the decline?
Europe has significantly cut its emissions of gases that lead to ground-level ozone. Despite this, levels of ozone do not appear to be falling. A recent EEA report questions this and suggests that the effect of the emission cuts on ozone may be masked by variable weather conditions.
In many countries of Europe, the time-series of ozone data are yet too short to draw conclusions about long-term trends. The longest time series reveals reduced ozone in northwest Europe up until 1999, followed by stabilisation, whereas in central Europe no significant trend has been found.
Ground-level ozone causes health problems, reduces crop yields and changes ecosystems. Its formation depends on weather conditions, particularly sunlight and temperature, and the presence of a number of anthropogenic gases, such as nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compounds and carbon monoxide. European countries have reduced emissions of ozone-producing gases to meet the objectives of the 2002 EU third daughter directive on air quality1. However, this appears to have had little impact on current ground-level ozone measurements.
The study compared long-term measurements of ozone levels with model simulations. The measurements were from the database, AirBase2, for 198 rural stations in 18 countries (with most stations in central Europe due to timescale and data limitations). The trends in measured data were compared with the output of scenarios generated by the regional EMEP Unified Chemical Transport Model.
By keeping the emissions constant at 1995 level, the EMEP model indicated that variations in weather have a significant impact on yearly ozone levels. The impact of the weather was greatest in north-west Europe and lessened towards the south-east. The strong effect of weather suggests that a long-term series of data from stable monitoring networks is needed to better understand the effect of reducing emissions of gases that cause ozone.
However, extended time series of data are currently scarce, particularly in southern Europe. Airbase’s longest time series (14-16 years) was available for only four countries. In the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, ground-level ozone has declined significantly, falling during the 1990s before levelling off. No significant trends were identified in Austria and Switzerland. Surprisingly, ozone levels fell most in areas where, according to the model, weather should have the greatest impact. The report suggests ozone abatement should be integrated into local as well as global policy.
Other factors which complicate ozone measurements include volatile organic compounds from plants and ozone ‘imported’ into Europe from other regions of the world. Hemispherical background contributions to ground-level ozone have been on the increase over recent decades. These are a mix of ozone produced from emissions on other continents and ozone transported from the stratosphere. Intercontinental inflows of ozone and gases that cause ozone could account for 10 to 30 per cent of ground level ozone in Western Europe and Scandinavia and less than 10 per cent in Central Europe.
Although it was not analysed in this report, climate change could also potentially increase ground-level ozone concentrations, given ozone’s dependency on weather conditions. A clear peak in ozone was measured during the hot summer of 2003, for example.
1. Now integrated into the new 2008 Air quality directive. See http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32002L0003:EN:NOT
2. See http://air-climate.eionet.europa.eu/databases/airbase/
Source: EEA technical report No 7/2009. (2009) Assessment of ground-level ozone in EEA member countries, with a focus on long-term trends. Downloadable from: www.eea.europa.eu/publications/assessment-of-ground-level-ozone-in-eea-member-countries-with-a-focus-on-long-term-trends
Contact: sso@nilu.no
Theme(s): Air pollution